Historical Policy Study: Social Welfare Policies & People of Color in The U.S.A.

Historical Policy Study: Social Welfare Policies & People of Color in The U.S.A.

Introduction

Throughout the history of the United States, people of color have been put at a disadvantage. From slavery to Jim Crow, to red lining, people of color have faced endless hurdles to achieve equality in the U.S. Many of these systems of oppression target people of color’s access to job opportunity, education, housing, and health care. All this contributes to an inability for many people of color today to not be able to economically advance (Helm, 2010).

Even today, wealth is unequally distributed by race, between black and white households.  The average African American family has but a fraction of the wealth of most white families, leaving them more economically insecure and with drastically less opportunities for economic achievement. Statistics have shown time and time again that people of color tend to have less wealth than white people despite supposed equal opportunity. Less wealth translates into fewer opportunities for advancement and is compounded by lower income rates and fewer chances to gain wealth and pass it down to future generations (Weller, 2023; Doob, n.d.).

According to Federal Reserve Data, African Americans own approximately one tenth of the wealth of white Americans. Families of color have less resources and are in greater need of personal savings than their white counterparts. They are more likely to experience negative income shocks but are less likely to have access to emergency savings. Therefore, people of color are more likely to fall behind on their bills and go into debt during times of financial crisis (Weller, 2023). Even when Americans of color pursue higher education, purchase a home or secure a good job, they still seem to fall short of the economic success of their white counterparts, who often achieve their success with much greater ease than their black and brown colleagues (Helm, 2010).

The disparity between people of color and Caucasians in the United States can be traced back to policies that either implicitly or explicitly discriminate against people of color. Though many of the policies we think of, such as those mentioned, slavery, Jim Crow laws, red lining, have been abolished; they are often replaced with policies that, although an improvement, are not without bias, discrimination, and cleverly disguised racism. For example, despite hospitals' anti racism and discrimination policies nationwide, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that black mothers and their children die at alarmingly higher rates than their white counterparts, regardless of their financial means (Hoyert, 2021). This is because black women and their children often take second place to their white counterparts, their pain is often overlooked, and the treatment given them is often subpar. (Stafford, 2021)

Current research shows the disparity that people of color are currently facing in the United States on a mass scale. What are the policies that caused such a disparity? And what policies have been implemented to bridge the gap? Have they been successful? In the next section we will explore slavery, Jim Crow laws, red lining and the policies enacted to repair the damage done by generations of slavery, Jim Crow laws, and red lining being in place (Doob, n.d.).

Historical Review

Early Republic (1781-1860) ~ Slavery & Land Ownership

The history of slavery in the United States reaches all the way back to 1619 when the privateer The White Lion brought 20 enslaved Africans ashore in the British colony of Jamestown, Virginia. Throughout the 17th century, European settlers in North America used enslaved Africans for cheap farm labor. In the early to mid 1800’s Frederick Douglas led an Abolitionist movement to abolish slavery in the United States. The movement took on in the Northernmost regions of the United States.  Slavery was never widespread in the North as it was in the South, but many northern businessmen grew rich off the slave trade and off southern plantations. On September 22, 1862, President Lincoln issued a preliminary emancipation proclamation, and on January 1, 1863, he made it official. The Emancipation Proclamation did not officially end all slavery in America, that would not happen until the passage of the 13th Amendment after the end of the Civil War in 1865 (Onion, 2024; Paulding, 1836). 

Towards the end of the Civil War, the United States Government implemented The Confiscation Act of 1861 which freed slaves who fought for or worked for the Confederate military and rendered the claims of slave owners to escaped slaves’ null and void (Fleming, 1906). The act could only be applied to slaves who were captured by the North or who escaped their slave owners and made it to Northern territories. Notably, the act left ambiguous the legal status of these rescued slaves which technically meant that they were now the property of the U.S. government. The act did not hold much weight for the South, nor did it help with war negotiations. Despite these limitations, this act did still free tens of thousands of slaves within a year (U.S. Senate, 2023). 

In 1865, at the end of the Civil War, the U.S. government promised newly freed slaves forty acres and a mule. It was General William T. Sherman who issued Special Field Order Fifteen which confiscated 400,000 acres of Confederate land in the state of Georgia and redistributed it to newly freed slaves; later the army gave some of them mules. But less than a year later, President Andrew Johnson returned most of the confiscated land back to the state of Georgia. The effects of this empty promise can still be felt today by communities of color (CBS News, 2023; Strickland, 2014).

Land ownership is a vital tool for building wealth and maintaining independence. In the 1900’s over sixteen million acres of farmland were owned by black Americans but that number has plummeted by over seventy percent since. Many black men that were lynched in the 1900’s was well to do landowners running successful farms or industries. Eminent domain laws were also abused to take land from people of color and such tactics are still used today. Black farmland has continually been the target of hate crimes. Black farmers have also been flat out denied loans for several years, only in recent years has this changed (CBS News, 2023; Hepburn, 2018).

Progressive Era (1900-1920) ~ Jim Crow 

After the Civil War, southern states began implementing “Jim Crow” laws. Jim Crow laws segregated many aspects of daily life for people of color, this included schools, parks, libraries, drinking fountains, restrooms, buses, trains, and restaurants. Jim Crow laws also prohibited people of color from voting and banned interracial marriage. Those who dared to challenge Jim Crow laws faced arrest, fines, jail sentences, mob violence, and lynching. Under Jim Crow, Americans of color lived as second-class citizens. Jim Crow was essentially the legitimization of racism in a post slavery south. Social Darwinists in the south found reason for Jim Crow laws in the fact that they believed that black people were innately intellectually and culturally inferior to white people. White religious leaders interpreted scripture passages to support Jim Crow laws and many southern politicians gave passionate speeches on the great danger of integration (Jim Crow Museum, n.d.; Ruef, 2018).

Great Society/War on Poverty (1960s) ~ The Civil Rights Movement

For decades, Jim Crow laws kept people of color from making economic progress. Many people of color tried to go north only to be met with a more subtle but just as stifling racism and discrimination as the south. This eventually led to the civil rights movement within communities of color.  Organizations like the NAACP were founded which worked to systematically attack the legal foundations of segregation. African American churches and labor unions became important centers for organizing the black community. During the 1960s, strong leaders like Dr. Martin Luther King and Malcolm X began to organize large protests and demonstrations which made major impacts. And organizations like the Southern Christian Leadership Council, Congress for Racial Equality, and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee led a series of publicized acts of civil disobedience to demonstrate the impact of Jim Crow on the lives of people of color. In 1963, the civil rights movement organized a march in Washington D.C. to protest for jobs and freedom (Stern, Axinn, 2018; Hirschy, 2024). 

The civil rights movement of the early 1960s successfully pushed Congress to act. This led to Congress passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act. The Civil Rights Act put an end to Jim Crow laws, ended segregation in public places, prohibited discrimination in programs or activities that receive federal financial assistance, prohibited discrimination in hiring, promoting, and firing, strengthened desegregation of schools and voting rights, and established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. The Voting Rights Act further enforced anti-discrimination in the voting process (Stern, Axinn, 2018; Andrews, 2015). 

Transitional Era (1968-1980) ~ Red Lining & The Continued Fight For Equality

Despite the monumental impact the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act had on black Americans freedom, subtle racist policies and policy abuses crept into once again stifling Americans of color. One such policy abuse was that of Redlining. Redlining is the practice of denying people access to credit because of where they live, even if they personally qualify for loans. In the early 1960’s, as well as long before, Mortgage lenders widely redlined urban neighborhoods with a high population of people of color. In 1968, the Fair Housing Act was passed which outlawed racially motivated redlining, yet redlining did not completely vanish (Federal Reserve, 2023; United States, 1999).

In 1978, the Federal Reserve hired a consultant who issued a report describing "mild hostility" and a "hesitance" of examiners to comply with and prioritize civil rights laws. To this day, people of color are still being put at an economic disadvantage by the system. (Federal Reserve, 2023) Despite policies implemented to change the system for the better, there is still a lack of equality between people of color and their white counterparts on the economic playing field (Rosenthal, 2014)

Theoretical Application

Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory is an academic and legal framework that acknowledges how racism is woven deeply into American society, as well as its laws, policies, and institutions. Some basic concepts of CRT include the notion that race is a social construct, racism is found in all societies and social groups, and that the everyday lives of common people matter. In recent decades, the idea of Critical Race Theory being taught in school has been under attack from far-right conservatives and republicans. These attacks on Critical Race Theory only further highlight the need for it in education and society (Price, 2010).

Regarding the American health system, a study found that people of color are often neglected or even taken advantage of in cancer research and treatment. The study found that, in most cancer research, white patients have dominated research studies while patients of color have been almost completely left out.  Over 80% of individuals included in The Cancer Genome Atlas Project were white, even though that is not reflective of the population of the United States or the world. The study found that in the case of certain foundational cancer discoveries resulted from a cell line obtained by the exploitative inclusion of a Black woman (Roberson, 2022).

Critical Race Theory is compatible with Social Work values in that Critical Race Theory can aid Social Workers in their fight for social justice as they pursue social change. Critical Race Theory gives Social Workers a framework through which they can properly address the problem of systemic racism in the United States and effectively work for change. Social Workers must also be ever aware of personal biases as we seek to value the dignity of each person, Critical Race Theory calls to light the racist biases that many American citizens have due to its systemic presence in our country (Code of Ethics, n.d.).

In June 2023 the Supreme Court ruled against affirmative action in college admissions. Since then, many colleges are actively seeking to enroll more students of color by implementing race neutral policies, incorporating underrepresented communities in campus life, and increasing financial aid for diverse applicants. This is connected to Critical Race Theory in that it seeks to amend the education gap between people of color and their white counterparts. Many colleges used to ban minorities from attending which has set back the economic and social progress of many marginalized communities. The Supreme Court ruling has, in many cases, enabled marginalized communities to have fair access to higher education (Carter, 2020).

As seen in the example of the U.S. healthcare system, by implementing ideals of Critical Race Theory into cancer research can help prevent the mistreatment of people of color in medical care and research, as well as aid medical programs in the work if conscientiously including people of color in all medical research. Keeping Critical Race Theory in schools ensures that systemic racism is rooted out early in the minds of the next generation. Anti-racist education has been shown to be by far one of the best methods of uprooting and dismantling racism in society and the world at large (Delgado, 2023; Watkins, 2023).

Conflict Theory 

Conflict Theory is a sociological and political philosophy that proposes that conflict is the primary force that drives social development and interaction. It upholds that society is in a constant state of conflict due to competition over limited resources. Conflict Theory suggests that racial disparities are a result of power struggles between a dominant white ruling class and oppressed people of color. The dominant group seeks to maintain its privileged position by suppressing and exploiting the oppressed groups which leads to systemic inequalities across nearly all aspects of society, especially education, employment, and housing (Bartos, 2002).

A recent study found that more than half of the civil conflicts recorded since the end of the Second World War have been classified as ethnic or religious conflicts, often involving a more dominant ruling class and a smaller marginalized minority.  The study suggests that the conflict is almost always rooted in the fear of the marginalized group taking from the wealth and power of the ruling class, highlighting struggles faced by Latin American groups in the United States as well as Middle Eastern ethnic groups in Europe. While on the surface most of these conflicts seem to be over cultural customs, values, and religious beliefs, Conflict Theory suggests that these issues are more about political and economic power (Esteban, 2012).

Conflict Theory is compatible with Social Work values in that it helps Social Workers to be ever mindful of the power dynamics that are at play in our world, our nation, and within our own relationships with clients. Conflict Theory can aid Social Workers in recognizing and calling out systems of oppression and racism. It also helps us identify who is in the ruling class and who are those being marginalized which is part of our competency skills (Code of Ethics, n.d.).

The Food Stamp Program which began in the U.S. in 1939 provides food benefits to low-income families so they can afford nutritious and healthy food. Many families receiving food stamps are Black and Native American families due to systemic racism. Conflict Theory helps us understand how the dominant white ruling class has oppressed people of color in the United States for fear of losing power and wealth. The Food Stamp Program is a way of sharing the wealth with marginalized groups who cannot afford quality groceries and therefore have had their health put at a disadvantage to their ruling class counterparts (Wiig, 2009).

Conclusion

People of color have been put at a great disadvantage in the United States of America. The impacts of slavery and Jim Crow laws can still be felt today by marginalized groups. And the Government has made minimal efforts to properly address the monumental issue of systemic racism. And helpful theories such as Critical Race Theory and Conflict Theory have either been fought against or ignored at large by law makers. While some policies have been implemented to the benefit of marginalized groups there is still a large gap between the ruling class and the marginalized. 

Regarding policy, the United States Government is obligated to pay reparations to people of color who have ancestors who were enslaved. This idea is a policy which is commonly referred to as “reparations.” Reparations are policies that aim to compensate populations for abuse, oppression and exploitation, often through monetary payments. People of color, especially those whose ancestors were enslaved have been put at an extremely unfair disadvantage from the rest of the population. A policy called “The American Reparations Act” would allow a family that can prove descent from slaves to receive some amount of monetary compensation from the Government. This would help these families, many of whom are still living below the poverty line, pay off debt, secure better housing, and break the cycle of poverty and inequality (Dye, 2021).

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